A | B | C | D | E | F | G | H | CH | I | J | K | L | M | N | O | P | Q | R | S | T | U | V | W | X | Y | Z | 0 | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9
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 macOS Ventura, the latest release of macOS | |
| Developer | Apple Inc. |
|---|---|
| Written in | |
| OS family | |
| Working state | Current |
| Source model | Proprietary (with open source components) |
| Initial release | March 24, 2001 |
| Latest release | 13.3.1[3](22E261)[4] (April 7, 2023) [±] |
| Latest preview | 13.4 beta[5] (22F5027f)[6] (March 28, 2023) [±] |
| Platforms | |
| Kernel type | Hybrid (XNU) |
| Default user interface | Aqua (graphical) |
| License | Commercial software, proprietary software |
| Preceded by | Classic Mac OS, NeXTSTEP |
| Official website | www |
| Support status | |
| Supported | |
| Part of a series on |
| macOS |
|---|
macOS (/ˌmækoʊˈɛs/;[7] previously OS X and originally Mac OS X) is a Unix operating system[8] developed and marketed by Apple Inc. since 2001. It is the primary operating system for Apple's Mac computers. Within the market of desktop and laptop computers, it is the second most widely used desktop OS, after Microsoft Windows and ahead of ChromeOS.
macOS succeeded the classic Mac OS, a Mac operating system with nine releases from 1984 to 1999. During this time, Apple cofounder Steve Jobs had left Apple and started another company, NeXT, developing the NeXTSTEP platform that would later be acquired by Apple to form the basis of macOS.
The first desktop version, Mac OS X 10.0, was released in March 2001, with its first update, 10.1, arriving later that year. All releases from Mac OS X 10.5 Leopard[9] and after are UNIX 03 certified,[10] with an exception for OS X 10.7 Lion.[11] Apple's other operating systems (iOS, iPadOS, watchOS, tvOS, audioOS) are derivatives of macOS.
A prominent part of macOS's original brand identity was the use of Roman numeral X, pronounced "ten" as in Mac OS X and also the iPhone X, as well as code naming each release after species of big cats, or places within California.[12] Apple shortened the name to "OS X" in 2011 and then changed it to "macOS" in 2016 to align with the branding of Apple's other operating systems, iOS, watchOS, and tvOS. After sixteen distinct versions of macOS 10, macOS Big Sur was presented as version 11 in 2020, macOS Monterey was presented as version 12 in 2021, and macOS Ventura was presented as version 13 in 2022.
macOS has supported three major processor architectures, beginning with PowerPC-based Macs in 1999. In 2006, Apple transitioned to the Intel architecture with a line of Macs using Intel Core processors. In 2020, Apple began the Apple silicon transition, using self-designed, 64-bit ARM-based Apple M series processors on the latest Macintosh computers.
History
Development
The heritage of what would become macOS had originated at NeXT, a company founded by Steve Jobs following his departure from Apple in 1985. There, the Unix-like NeXTSTEP operating system was developed, before being launched in 1989. The kernel of NeXTSTEP is based upon the Mach kernel, which was originally developed at Carnegie Mellon University, with additional kernel layers and low-level user space code derived from parts of BSD.[13] Its graphical user interface was built on top of an object-oriented GUI toolkit using the Objective-C programming language.
Throughout the early 1990s, Apple had tried to create a "next-generation" OS to succeed its classic Mac OS through the Taligent, Copland and Gershwin projects, but all were eventually abandoned.[14] This led Apple to purchase NeXT in 1996, allowing NeXTSTEP, then called OPENSTEP, to serve as the basis for Apple's next generation operating system.[15] This purchase also led to Steve Jobs returning to Apple as an interim, and then the permanent CEO, shepherding the transformation of the programmer-friendly OPENSTEP into a system that would be adopted by Apple's primary market of home users and creative professionals. The project was first code named "Rhapsody" and then officially named Mac OS X.[16][17]
Mac OS X
Mac OS X was originally presented as the tenth major version of Apple's operating system for Macintosh computers; until 2020, versions of macOS retained the major version number "10". The letter "X" in Mac OS X's name refers to the number 10, a Roman numeral, and Apple has stated that it should be pronounced "ten" in this context. However, it is also commonly pronounced like the letter "X".[18][19] Previous Macintosh operating systems (versions of the classic Mac OS) were named using Arabic numerals, as with Mac OS 8 and Mac OS 9.[20][18] As of 2020 and 2021, Apple reverted to Arabic numeral versioning for successive releases, macOS 11 Big Sur and macOS 12 Monterey, as they have done for the iPhone 11 and iPhone 12 following the iPhone X.
The first version of Mac OS X, Mac OS X Server 1.0, was a transitional product, featuring an interface resembling the classic Mac OS, though it was not compatible with software designed for the older system. Consumer releases of Mac OS X included more backward compatibility. Mac OS applications could be rewritten to run natively via the Carbon API; many could also be run directly through the Classic Environment with a reduction in performance.
The consumer version of Mac OS X was launched in 2001 with Mac OS X 10.0. Reviews were variable, with extensive praise for its sophisticated, glossy Aqua interface, but criticizing it for sluggish performance.[21] With Apple's popularity at a low, the maker of FrameMaker, Adobe Inc., declined to develop new versions of it for Mac OS X.[22] Ars Technica columnist John Siracusa, who reviewed every major OS X release up to 10.10, described the early releases in retrospect as "dog-slow, feature poor" and Aqua as "unbearably slow and a huge resource hog".[21][23][24]
Apple rapidly developed several new releases of Mac OS X.[25] Siracusa's review of version 10.3, Panther, noted "It's strange to have gone from years of uncertainty and vaporware to a steady annual supply of major new operating system releases."[26] Version 10.4, Tiger, reportedly shocked executives at Microsoft by offering a number of features, such as fast file searching and improved graphics processing, that Microsoft had spent several years struggling to add to Windows with acceptable performance.[27]
As the operating system evolved, it moved away from the classic Mac OS, with applications being added and removed.[28] Considering music to be a key market, Apple developed the iPod music player and music software for the Mac, including iTunes and GarageBand.[29] Targeting the consumer and media markets, Apple emphasized its new "digital lifestyle" applications such as the iLife suite, integrated home entertainment through the Front Row media center and the Safari web browser. With increasing popularity of the internet, Apple offered additional online services, including the .Mac, MobileMe and most recently iCloud products. It later began selling third-party applications through the Mac App Store.
Newer versions of Mac OS X also included modifications to the general interface, moving away from the striped gloss and transparency of the initial versions. Some applications began to use a brushed metal appearance, or non-pinstriped title bar appearance in version 10.4.[30] In Leopard, Apple announced a unification of the interface, with a standardized gray-gradient window style.[31][32]
In 2006, the first Intel Macs released used a specialized version of Mac OS X 10.4 Tiger.[33]
A key development for the system was the announcement and release of the iPhone from 2007 onwards. While Apple's previous iPod media players used a minimal operating system, the iPhone used an operating system based on Mac OS X, which would later be called "iPhone OS" and then iOS. The simultaneous release of two operating systems based on the same frameworks placed tension on Apple, which cited the iPhone as forcing it to delay Mac OS X 10.5 Leopard.[34] However, after Apple opened the iPhone to third-party developers its commercial success drew attention to Mac OS X, with many iPhone software developers showing interest in Mac development.[35]
In 2007, Mac OS X 10.5 Leopard was the sole release with universal binary components, allowing installation on both Intel Macs and select PowerPC Macs.[36] It is also the final release with PowerPC Mac support. Mac OS X 10.6 Snow Leopard was the first version of Mac OS X to be built exclusively for Intel Macs, and the final release with 32-bit Intel Mac support.[37] The name was intended to signal its status as an iteration of Leopard, focusing on technical and performance improvements rather than user-facing features; indeed it was explicitly branded to developers as being a 'no new features' release.[38] Since its release, several OS X or macOS releases (namely OS X Mountain Lion, OS X El Capitan, macOS High Sierra, and macOS Monterey) follow this pattern, with a name derived from its predecessor, similar to the 'tick–tock model' used by Intel.
In two succeeding versions, Lion and Mountain Lion, Apple moved some applications to a highly skeuomorphic style of design inspired by contemporary versions of iOS while simplifying some elements by making controls such as scroll bars fade out when not in use.[23] This direction was, like brushed metal interfaces, unpopular with some users, although it continued a trend of greater animation and variety in the interface previously seen in design aspects such as the Time Machine backup utility, which presented past file versions against a swirling nebula, and the glossy translucent dock of Leopard and Snow Leopard.[39] In addition, with Mac OS X 10.7 Lion, Apple ceased to release separate server versions of Mac OS X, selling server tools as a separate downloadable application through the Mac App Store. A review described the trend in the server products as becoming "cheaper and simpler... shifting its focus from large businesses to small ones."[40]
OS X
In 2012, with the release of OS X 10.8 Mountain Lion, the name of the system was officially shortened from Mac OS X to OS X, after the previous version shortened the system name in a similar fashion a year prior. That year, Apple removed the head of OS X development, Scott Forstall, and design was changed towards a more minimal direction.[41] Apple's new user interface design, using deep color saturation, text-only buttons and a minimal, 'flat' interface, was debuted with iOS 7 in 2013. With OS X engineers reportedly working on iOS 7, the version released in 2013, OS X 10.9 Mavericks, was something of a transitional release, with some of the skeuomorphic design removed, while most of the general interface of Mavericks remained unchanged.[42] The next version, OS X 10.10 Yosemite, adopted a design similar to iOS 7 but with greater complexity suitable for an interface controlled with a mouse.[43]
From 2012 onwards, the system has shifted to an annual release schedule similar to that of iOS. It also steadily cut the cost of updates from Snow Leopard onwards, before removing upgrade fees altogether from 2013 onwards.[44] Some journalists and third-party software developers have suggested that this decision, while allowing more rapid feature release, meant less opportunity to focus on stability, with no version of OS X recommendable for users requiring stability and performance above new features.[45] Apple's 2015 update, OS X 10.11 El Capitan, was announced to focus specifically on stability and performance improvements.[46]
macOS
In 2016, with the release of macOS 10.12 Sierra, the name was changed from OS X to macOS to align it with the branding of Apple's other primary operating systems: iOS, watchOS, and tvOS.[47] macOS Sierra added Siri, iCloud Drive, picture-in-picture support, a Night Shift mode that switches the display to warmer colors at night, and two Continuity features: Universal Clipboard, which syncs a user's clipboard across their Apple devices, and Auto Unlock, which can unlock a user's Mac with their Apple Watch. macOS Sierra also adds support for the Apple File System (APFS), Apple's successor to the dated HFS+ file system.[48][49][50] macOS 10.13 High Sierra, released in 2017, included performance improvements, Metal 2 and HEVC support, and made APFS the default file system for SSD boot drives.[51]
Its successor, macOS 10.14 Mojave, was released in 2018, adding a dark user interface option and a dynamic wallpaper setting.[52] It was succeeded by macOS 10.15 Catalina in 2019, which replaces iTunes with separate apps for different types of media, and introduces the Catalyst system for porting iOS apps.[53]
In 2020, Apple previewed macOS 11 Big Sur at the WWDC 2020. This was the first increment in the primary version number of macOS since the release of Mac OS X Public Beta in 2000; updates to macOS 11 were given 11.x numbers, matching the version numbering scheme used by Apple's other operating systems. Big Sur brought major changes to the UI and was the first version to run on the ARM instruction set.[54] The new numbering system was continued in 2021 with macOS 12 Monterey, and 2022 with macOS 13 Ventura.
Architecture
At macOS's core is a POSIX-compliant operating system built on top of the XNU kernel,[55] with standard Unix facilities available from the command line interface. Apple has released this family of software as a free and open source operating system named Darwin. On top of Darwin, Apple layered a number of components, including the Aqua interface and the Finder, to complete the GUI-based operating system which is macOS.[56]
With its original introduction as Mac OS X, the system brought a number of new capabilities to provide a more stable and reliable platform than its predecessor, the classic Mac OS. For example, pre-emptive multitasking and memory protection improved the system's ability to run multiple applications simultaneously without them interrupting or corrupting each other. Many aspects of macOS's architecture are derived from OPENSTEP, which was designed to be portable, to ease the transition from one platform to another. For example, NeXTSTEP was ported from the original 68k-based NeXT workstations to x86 and other architectures before NeXT was purchased by Apple,[57] and OPENSTEP was later ported to the PowerPC architecture as part of the Rhapsody project.
Prior to macOS High Sierra, and on drives other than solid state drives (SSDs), the default file system is HFS+, which it inherited from the classic Mac OS. Operating system designer Linus Torvalds has criticized HFS+, saying it is "probably the worst file system ever", whose design is "actively corrupting user data". He criticized the case insensitivity of file names, a design made worse when Apple extended the file system to support Unicode.[58][59]
The Darwin subsystem in macOS manages the file system, which includes the Unix permissions layer. In 2003 and 2005, two Macworld editors expressed criticism of the permission scheme; Ted Landau called misconfigured permissions "the most common frustration" in macOS, while Rob Griffiths suggested that some users may even have to reset permissions every day, a process which can take up to 15 minutes.[60] More recently, another Macworld editor, Dan Frakes, called the procedure of repairing permissions vastly overused.[61] He argues that macOS typically handles permissions properly without user interference, and resetting permissions should only be tried when problems emerge.[62]
The architecture of macOS incorporates a layered design:[63] the layered frameworks aid rapid development of applications by providing existing code for common tasks.[64] Apple provides its own software development tools, most prominently an integrated development environment called Xcode. Xcode provides interfaces to compilers that support several programming languages including C, C++, Objective-C, and Swift. For the Mac transition to Intel processors, it was modified so that developers could build their applications as a universal binary, which provides compatibility with both the Intel-based and PowerPC-based Macintosh lines.[65] First and third-party applications can be controlled programmatically using the AppleScript framework,[66] retained from the classic Mac OS,[67] or using the newer Automator application that offers pre-written tasks that do not require programming knowledge.[68]
Software compatibility
| Operating system | Safari | QuickTime | iTunes | Messages/iChat | iWork | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 10.0 "Cheetah"[note 1] | — | 1.x | 5.0 | 2.0.4 | — | — |
| 10.1 "Puma" | 6.3.1 | 4.7.1 | ||||
| 10.2 "Jaguar"[note 2] | 1.0.3 | 6.5.3 | 6.0.5 | 2.0 | Keynote | |
| 10.3 "Panther" | 1.3.2 | 7.5 | 7.7.1[69] | 2.1[70] | '05 | |
| 10.4 "Tiger" | 4.1.3 | 2.1.3 | 7.6.4 | 9.2.1[71] | 3.0 | '09 |
| 10.5 "Leopard" | 5.0.6 | 3.6 | 7.7 | 10.6.3[72] | 4.0 | |
| 10.6 "Snow Leopard" | 5.1.10[73] | 4.5[74] | 10.1 | 11.4[75] | 5.0 | |
| 10.7 "Lion"[note 3] | 6.1.6 | Unknown | 12.2.2[76] | 8.0b or 6.0.1 | ||
| 10.8 "Mountain Lion" | 6.2.8 | 10.2 | 12.4.3[77] | 8.0 | ||
| 10.9 "Mavericks" | 9.1.3 | 7.3 | 10.3 | 12.6.2 | 2013 | |
| 10.10 "Yosemite" | 10.1.2 | 9.3 | 10.4 | 12.8.2 | 2014 | |
| 10.11 "El Capitan" | 11.1.2 | 9.3 | ||||
| 10.12 "Sierra" | 12.1.2 | 11.0 | 10.0 | 2018 | ||
| 10.13 "High Sierra" | 13.1.2 | 11.0 | 2019 | |||
| 10.14 "Mojave" | 14.1.2 | 12.0 | 10.5 | 12.9.5 | 12.0 | 2020 |
| 10.15 "Catalina" | 15.4 | 13.0 | — | 13.0
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